Enteroendocrine Cells (EEC)

Enteroendocrine cells release hormones and neurotransmitters to regulate nutrient absorption, digestion, motility, feeding behaviours and sensory perception.
Gribble & Reimann 2016 Annu Rev Physiol 78: 277-299
Kaelberer et al. 2018 Science 361: eaat5236
Gribble et al. 2019 Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 15: 226-237
Liddle 2019 Cell Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 7: 739-747

One percent of the intestinal epithelium is represented by the Enteroendocrine Cells (EEC)
Rezzani et al. 2022 Int. J. Mol. Sci. 23: 3758

Based on their cytoarchitecture and location, Enteroendocrine Cells (EEC) are divided into open type, with a bottle-neck shape and a prolongation with microvilli in direct contact with the intestinal lumen, and closed type, strictly linked to the basal membrane, without reaching the intestinal lumen and without microvilli. Open-type cells are activated by luminal content, while closed-type EECs are sensitive to luminal contents through neural or humoral networks
Rezzani et al. 2022 Int. J. Mol. Sci. 23: 3758

Enteroendocrine cells (EEC) and their secreted product in the gut (aacording to Rezzani et al. 2022 Int. J. Mol. Sci. 23: 3758)

Modlin et al. 2006 J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91: 2340-2348
Haber et al. 2017 Nature 551: 333
Qin et al. 2019 Life Sci 239: 116886

Enteroendocrine cells sense bacterial Tryptophan metabolites to activate enteric and vagus neuronal pathways
Ye et al. 2021 Cell Host & Microbe 29: 179–196

Enteroendocrine Cells sense nutrients and the metabolites from intestinal commensal microbiota and, in turn, coordinate antibacterial, mechanical, and metabolic branches of the host intestinal innate immune response to the commensal microbiota. After activation by various luminal stimuli they secrete hormones or neuronal messengers in a calcium-dependent manner
Furness et al. 2013a Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology 10: 729-740
Ye et al. 2021 Cell Host & Microbe 29: 179–196

Short-chain fatty acids and branched-chain fatty acids from microbial carbohydrate and amino acid catabolism can activate Enteroendocrine Cells (EEC) via G protein-coupled receptors, a few studies show
Bellono et al. 2017 Cell 170(1): 185-198
Lu et al. 2018 Endocrinology 159(7): 2826-2835
Ye et al. 2021 Cell Host & Microbe 29: 179–196

Enteroendocrine cells (EECs) are not found in a consistent ratio throughout the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Interestingly, all EECs exhibit plasticity, meaning they have the ability to revert to a stem cell state when there is damage or during treatments like chemotherapy or irradiation. Therefore, they can change their state when necessary.
Gribble & Reimann 2016 Annu Rev Physiol 78: 277-299
Yan et al. 2017 Cell Stem Cell 21: 78-90
Beumer et al. 2020 Endocr. Rev. 41: 695-706

New technical approaches showed that Enteroendocrine Cells (EEC) are derived from the endoderm and not the neuroectoderm, even if they share features with neurons
Li et al. 2011f Diabetes Obes. Metab. 13(Suppl. S1): 5-12
Gribble & Reimann 2016 Annu Rev Physiol 78: 277-299

They arise from pluripotent stem cells at the base of the gut crypts and migrate up the crypt–villus axis; stem cells differentiate into Enteroendocrine Cells (EEC) over a period of 2–6 days thanks to three basic helix–loop–helix transcription factors. The same stem cells give rise to other epithelial cell types of the gut (enterocytes , Paneth , goblet cells ), and these cells are present in the villi and crypts of the gut
Li et al. 2011f Diabetes Obes. Metab. 13(Suppl. S1): 5-12
Latorre et al. 2016 Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 28: 620-630

The hormones released by enteroendocrine cells can act locally, on other cells (including immune cells), on nerve endings, or on organs at distant sites, including pancreatic islets and the CNS.
Furness et al. 2013a Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology 10: 729-740

Effects are: changes in food intake (appetite and satiety), changes in gastric emptying and intestinal transit, release of digestive enzymes, induction of nutrient transporters and digestive enzymes, increase in intestinal barrier function, insulin secretion by the pancreas, modulation of immune responses and tissue growth.
Furness et al. 2013a Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology 10: 729-740

Enteroendocrine cells sense the metabolites from gut commensal microbiota. In turn, they coordinate the antibacterial, mechanical, and metabolic branches of the host intestinal innate immune response to the commensal microbiota.
Gerbe et al. 2012 Cell Mol Life Sci. 69: 2907-2917

In the year 1960, EECs were found to have markers for neuronal differentiation, and, for this reason, they were believed to originate from the neural crest and were named neuroendocrine cells
Pearse et al. 1971 Gut 12: 783-788

see also:
Enteroendocine Cell & G-Protein Coupled Receptor 41 (GPR41)