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Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a crucial component of Gram-negative bacteria that plays a role in innate immunity. It activates the Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 receptor on cell membranes and the cytosolic receptor caspase-11, leading to inflammasome activation and pyroptosis. The mechanism by which LPS enters host cells involves bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, host-secreted proteins, and host [extracellular vesicles …